The Language And Linguistic Competence English Language Essay

The Language And Linguistic Competence English Language Essay Linguistic competence, besides being a part communicative competence, deals with language as such in oral communication which encompasses many spheres namely phonology that deals with pronunciation and perception of speech sounds, prosody that is needed when using intonation to convey syntactic information and the ability to interpret the information conveyed through intonation, lexis or diction which is the ability to choose the proper lexis in communication and make sense of the subtle meaning of a particular word or expression, and grammar that helps sentence formation and interpretation of sentence meaning. Then one needs to clarify the nature of a language. Language  is a set of rules for generating speech  [1]  , or system of conventional spoken or written symbols used by people in a shared culture to communicate with each other  [2]  . This shared culture is created by people. Hence, language cannot exist without its users. If its user quits using a language, then it ceases to exist. The vivid example is Latin language (here, the usage of Latin in medicine or other sciences is omitted). For a language to exist there should be society, because it is the society that uses and modifies language as time goes by. How many languages are there in the world? Entologue research counted 6909 languages in the world  [3]  . And according to Encarta Encyclopedia there are ten mostly used languages in the world: Mandarin Chinese, Hindi or Urdu, Spanish, English, Arabic, Bengali, Russian, Portuguese, Japanese, and German  [4]  ,  [5]  . These are used in intercultural communication most of all. Nonetheless, any language can serve as a channel for information flow. Yet, one language can have many speech communities that are big and small. Lobanov  [6]  implemented this term to describe variations of one language that exist, since one language can have many versions like, for example, English (British English, American English) or variances of one language in one country i.e. dialect. Language by its nature can serve not only as means of communication, but also as self identification or identification of others. Likewise, one can use a language to exclude people from communication. For instance, in Russian prisons inmates use prison jargon in communication so that staff of prison would not understand what they are talking about. Communication can occur if participants of oral communication know and use a common language. It is much easier if they are native speakers of the common language and share a lot of common ground knowledge. However, if they speak a completely different language, they wont have good interaction, except primitive exchange of basic information by hand gestures that can be misleading or they would need to hire an interpreter. This section of the dissertation presents the situation when people do speak a common language, however that means of communication is not their native language and they dont have common grounding. In such case, people would have different styles of communication that reside in their culture and differ from others that naturally cause miscommunication between them. There are 6 types of oral miscommunication which are caused by lack of knowledge of various language spheres such as phonology, lexis, grammar, and cultural competence  [7]  . Table.2 Model for the categorization of nonnative-native speakers oral miscommunication and its causes. Mispronunciation when encoding in speaking Misuse and misunderstanding of spoken due to lack of adequate competence in prosody and phonology Misperception when decoding when hearing Misspeaking when encoding in speaking Misuse and misunderstanding of spoken due to lack of adequate grammar and lexis competence /Misinterpretation of spoken because of lack adequate intercultural competence or socio-cultural differences Misunderstanding or non-understanding when decoding Misformulating spoken discourse misuse and misinterpretation of spoken due to lack of adequate pragmatic competence/ Misinterpretation of spoken because of lack adequate intercultural competence or socio-cultural differences Misunderstanding or non-understanding of spoken discourse. Zhenxian Wang, Verbal Miscommunication Between English Native Speakers And Chinese Learners of English, Beijing Institute of Education, 2009, p. 5-11. Mispronunciation which is the first point of the above table deals with encoding in speaking. Here Encoding is meant to be at the productive phonological level, which has three broad types: segmental, combinational, and supersegmental. Segmental mispronunciation occurs in individual consonants or vowels; combination mispronunciation refers to the omission of one consonant in a consonant cluster, poor pronunciation of linking sounds and weak forms; suprasegmental mispronunciation comprises the phenomena of stress (word stress and sentence stress) rhythm, and intonation  [8]  . For instance, one who speaks English that is not good enough could pronounce heat instead of hit, think like sink and many other words incorrectly. Misperception when decoding when hearing. It occurs when one wrongly perceive or fail to recognize the pronunciation of words. For instance, one can see the difference between hut and hot, sink and think, Seek and sick and other words as he or she might apply the competence on phonology of his or her native language which might differ tremendously. Misspeaking when encoding in speaking. Misuse of lexis, which often results from their lack of knowledge of the connotation of the lexis. For instance, one could say In lame mans terms: instead of In laymans terms meaning someone who lacks specialized knowledge on a topic. It wouldnt be correct, or nice, to label someone a lame man. Misunderstanding or non-understanding when decoding. Ignorance of a words connotation can lead to misspeaking, so it can also bring about misunderstanding. For instance, there is an expression break your leg that is used as a wish of good luck for the actors or entertainers before their performance. It is sometimes used even in the casual everyday life. Without knowing it, the foreigner might be offended that someone is suggesting breaking ones leg. Misformulating spoken discourse. For instance, in China, when the host offers anything to drink or eat, the guest, whether he or she wants to take it or not, will usually reply with a ritual No when asked for the first time. Then the host insists that the guest would accept the offer, replying with something like ok. Whereas, in certain other cultures of such continents as North America or Europe, the host does not serve drink or food against the spoken wishes of the guest. For that reason, in the western world, a Chinese person ends up without food or drink because of his or her ritual answer. Non-native speakers tend to employ the conversation strategies from their cultures, when they are not appropriate in cultures of native speakers or people from other cultures. Non-understanding of discourse force is often a result of failure to distinguish discourse markers. For example, the discourse force of the sentence Nice meeting you is to finish the conversation; however, a nonnative speaker may not understand it. As a result, s/he continues talking to the native speaker who finally has to finish the conversation by saying Sorry, we have to go.  [9]  This situation took place between a Chinese high school female teacher of English and a female visitor from America when they met at the Tiananmen Square for the first time  [10]  . 3.1 Vocabulary or Lexis Words are the basic units of any language in the world that are used in sentences supported by grammar. They are loaded with meanings that can be good, neutral or bad. Problems arise when, for instance, some of the words and phrases whose meanings are unknown to the hearer, which hinder the hearer from comprehension of the conversation. Likewise there are the words known to the hearer but are undesired to be use due to their degree of rudeness. Here I will present and discuss certain categories of words and expressions that require special attention as they might cause miscommunication. 3.2 Slang The first aspect of lexis in intercultural communication that needs reviewing is slang. The reason behind it is that slang and its misunderstanding can cause Behavioral and Mindset Anxiety, Discomfort Fear of the Unknown, Prejudice and Stereotyping, Perceived Cultural Superiority or Ethnocentrism, Racial, Sexual, and Educational Discrimination  [11]  . One needs to understand that Slang is an ever changing set of colloquial words and phrases that speakers use to establish or reinforce social identity or cohesiveness within a group or trend or fashion in society at large  [12]  . The usage of slang in verbal intercultural communication might raise a barrier or misunderstanding as slang is attached to a certain social group, culture or subculture, rather not to language as such. Hence, a person who employs slang in his or her speech with foreigners that is used in communication among the representatives of his or her social group might be misunderstood or not understood at all. There are certain criteria for words to be considered as slang  [13]  : Its presence will markedly lower, at least for the moment, the dignity of formal or serious speech or writing. Its use implies the users special familiarity either with the referent or with that of less status or less responsible class of people who have such familiarity and use the term. It is a tabooed term in ordinary disclosure with persons of higher social status or greater responsibility. It is used in place of the well-known conventional synonyms, especially in order (a) to protect the user from the discomfort caused by the conventional item or (b) to protect the user from the discomfort or annoyance of further elaboration. The most important is to realize that communication requires common ground knowledge for both parties of communication  [14]  . Slang cannot be considered a common ground for intercultural conversation as different nations do not share the knowledge of the same slang across the globe. Not to mention that slang should be avoided in certain settings of official meetings at any cost. The best option is to exclude the use of this type of vocabulary for speech in intercultural communication.

Fly Away Peter, David Malouf Essay

â€Å"Two little dickie birds, Sitting on a wall; One named Peter, One named Paul. Fly away Peter! Fly away Paul! Come Back Peter! Come Back Paul!† Traditional Throughout ‘Fly Away Peter’ Malouf utilises a variety of literary techniques such as contrast, Imagery, Symbolism and foreshadowing to portray ideas and themes. The title ‘Fly Away Peter’ makes reference to the traditional English nursery rhyme ‘Two Little Dickie Birds’. Moulaf utilises this nursery rhyme to make the connection between themes within ‘Fly Away Peter’ and everyday life. â€Å"Two little dickie birds, Sitting on a wall;† These opening lines of the nursery rhyme introduce two of the main ideas within the novel. The two birds talked about in the nursery rhyme are Peter and Paul. the birds and are a reference to the motif of birds seen throughout the book. The birds are used to symbolise the idea of life being a continuous cycle that carries on regardless of the situation, â€Å"even here, in the thick of the fighting, there were birds†. For Jim the birds symbolised normality and provided a â€Å"private reassurance†. This provided Jim with a sense of normality in the middle of ‘hell’. In the rhyme the wall symbolises the sanctuary. The sanctuary symbolises the ‘garden of Eden’ and Moulaf has used the sanctuary to contrast the war. This is introducing the idea of good versus evil. A variety of techniques are used to introduce the sanctuary. Being a poet, Moulaf has used long flowing descriptions utilising descriptive language such as â€Å"intensely blue† â€Å"tobacco brown† â€Å"flared† and â€Å"piano-wires singing†. These add an extra level to the understanding and the natural beauty of the sanctuary. The sanctuary is also used to introduce another theme of the novel, two planes of live. Within the first sentence Moulaf uses a narrator voice to introduce the setting of the novel. With the Use of Jim being a narrator Moulaf foreshadows the idea of there being two planes of life. â€Å"a clumsy shape had been lifting itself out of an invisible paddock†. The invisible paddock talked about in the first sentence is foreshadowing of the introduction of the two planes of life. Moulaf is also using symbolism. The â€Å"invisible paddock† symbolises the sky, and as later introduced the view from the sky is the second plane of life. Moulaf has used the lines; â€Å"One named Peter, One named Paul† to link the characters of the book to the religious views and ways of living in the 1960’s. In the 1750’s the rhyme ‘Two Little Dickie Birds’ talked of two birds names Jack and Gill, in the early 1900’s the names were changed to the disciples ‘Peter and Paul’. In ‘Fly away Peter’ Moulaf has used this link between the birds name to introduce the religious connections. The bird peter symbioses Jim and Paul symbolises Ashley in the context of ‘Fly away Peter’. Throughout the novel Moulaf uses the literary technique of narration to tell parts of the story. â€Å"The world Jim found himself in†¦Ã¢â‚¬  this narrator figure symbolises God. Jim and Ashley also symbolise angels. This references the first quote Moulaf placed in the front of the novel. The â€Å"divine creature† is an angel. Jim and Ashley are angels incarnated in a human form, and the ‘flying away’ is the time on earth and the coming back is the return to heaven. In the novel Jim dies from injuries sustained form a battle, and in this the cycle of his life is complete and he returns to heaven. The lines â€Å"Fly away peter, Fly away Paul† foreshadow Jim and Ashley going to fight in the war. The war is the complete contrast of the Sanctuary. The descriptive language used shows the contrast between the two locations. Moulaf describes the sanctuary using phrases such as â€Å"wooded country beyond† and â€Å"silvery scrub† in comparison to the description of the war; â€Å"The air was tormented† and â€Å"Deadly†. The war is over-run with rats, which are seen as creatures of evil, where as the sanctuary is full of birds which are  creatures of the sky. Moulaf also uses the cattle trucks to symbolise how the soldiers were treated. The trucks had a sign which read â€Å"eight horses or forty men† meaning the army treated the soldiers as if they were as replicable as cattle. The cattle trucks also took the cattle to the abattoir, likewise the cattle truck is taking the majority of the soldiers to their death. The rhyme itself is a cycle, the birds fly away and come back again â€Å"Come back Peter! Come back Paul!†. With the religious understanding and interpretation of the novel the coming back is returning to heaven, however the coming back can also be related to the quote at the beginning of the book, where it talks about â€Å"the stone will be our bed†, the returning is being buried in the earth. Moulaf introduces the theme of digging early in the novel, however this motif is used when Jim is dying. During war digging symbolises a grave, and after a long exposure to war Jim assumes digging has to be for a grave â€Å"a grave it must be†. During Jim’s stream of consciousness before his death he meets Clancy, the first hint that Jim has either passed on or is hallucinating. Clancy instructs Jim to dig, â€Å"That’s the style! Dig†. When you are buried you are returned to the earth, and hence returned to the stone. This is part of the continuous cycle of life. The lines â€Å"Come Back Peter! Come Back Paul!† foreshadow the ending of the novel and complete the cycle, which is one of the key themes Moulaf is portraying. Moulaf has used a variety of literary techniques such as contrast, Imagery, Symbolism and foreshadowing to portray ideas and themes throughout ‘Fly Away Peter’. Malouf focuses on the theme the continuous circle of life to illustrate the connection between the novel and life â€Å"the places, the stories of a life that was continuous elsewhere†.

Court News Essay

Editorial Despite our report of the 30th November regarding her majesty’s speech to the House of Commons in which she stated she would act only for the good of her people, it has to be admitted that there is still an air of disquiet in the country regarding the future of the monarchy. The queen, although still in good health in body and mind, is now in her 68th year and the length of her reign is unprecedented. The future of a Protestant monarchy must be assured for the sake of the country, its stability and role in Europe. Around the World It is reported by our correspondent in Utrecht that a burgher of that city, one Oliver Van Noort, a former inn keeper, has recently completed a three year voyage in which he claims to have sailed completely around the world. His voyage, which he reported in a letter to the authorities in the Netherlands caused much excitement. Theatre News, by J. Q. Adams Mr William Shakespeare, author of such entertainments as ‘Julius Caesar’ which was well received, has this year come up with two new plays in contrast. The Merry Wives of Windsor’ is a light hearted comedy to lift the dullest spirits. It features that lovable rogue, Falstaff. , known of course from earlier works. This can be seen for the price of one penny every Monday and Tuesday at the Globe Theatre, Southwark. As this is such a popular play there will be extra boat men around to ferry passengers. For those of a more serious turn of mind the tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, the title role being played by Mr Richard Burbage and the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, will be performed on Wednesday, Thursday, Friday and Saturday. Fashion K. Emerson Spain continues to be a major influence upon English fashions. The work of Mistress Dinghen Vanderplasse with her knowledge of starching methods continues to be important, especially as ruffs remain in fashion, though they tend to be on smaller scale than on previous years. Silk, hand knitted, stockings were a popular present for many ladies this Christmas past, including her majesty, despite the cold weather. The majority though still prefer stockings of cloth or wool for both durability and warmth. The farthingale, so popular at court, as can be seen in her majesty’s recent portrait, has been estimated to have reached a width of 48 inches in some cases. Will this impractical garment continue to be fashionable in the new century? Recent Legislation by E. Cubberley The recently enacted, and much needed, Poor Law is already bringing changes in our society. It says much for the legislature that they have taken such care to ensure the care of unfortunates. Poor children will be properly apprenticed and trained in a trade as well as in their letters.. The richer member of society will fulfill their social obligations by providing supplies for the poorer folk in difficult times. No more should we have to report upon poor waifs being found starved to death in harsh weather s happened last winter when the harvest was so poor. And think of the benefit to the country of so many young people properly equipped for a trade This, together with the stopping of the monopolies which favored only a few, will benefit all of her majesty’s subjects.

The Effects Of Water Pollution On The Environment Essay

On December 7, 2007, a crane barge owned by Samsung Heavy Industries collided with Hebei Spirit, a crude carrier from Hong Kong, carrying 260,000 tons of crude oil. Due to this event, nearby residents suffered from the bad smell for a long time and sea creatures were killed in the contaminated water. There is another man-made pollutant of water nowadays. Waste water from factories or domestic places has flowed into waters, and as a result water pollution is getting more serious. Water shortage is also on the rise, but imagine a world where someone suffer from both water shortage and water pollution. To prevent further pollution and to conserve the environment, it is crucial to be aware of the effects of water pollution. Water pollution incurs not only environmental damage but also health problems and economic losses. First, the water pollution results in environmental issues. The enrichment of water by various nutrients can be of a natural eutrophication and cultural eutrophication. 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